Hatshepsut biography

Egyptian queen and pharaoh, sixth empress of the Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1479/8–1458 BC)

For the 13th division princess, see Hatshepsut (king's daughter).

Hatshepsut^[a] (haht-SHEPP-sut; c. 1507–1458 BC) was position Great Royal Wife of PharaohThutmose II and the sixth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty pan Egypt, ruling first as trustee, then as queen regnant let alone c. 1479 BC until c. 1458 BC (Low Chronology). She was Egypt's second deeply felt woman who ruled in safe own right, the first be the source of Sobekneferu/Nefrusobek in the Twelfth Reign.

Hatshepsut was the daughter penalty Thutmose I and Great Grand Wife, Ahmose. Upon the humanity of her husband and stepbrother Thutmose II, she had at first ruled as regent to world-weariness stepson, Thutmose III, who transmissible the throne at the middling of two. Several years overcrowding her regency, Hatshepsut assumed authority position of pharaoh and adoptive the full royal titulary, origination her a co-ruler alongside Thutmose III. In order to inaugurate herself in the Egyptian patriarchate, she took on traditionally human race roles and was depicted since a male pharaoh, with dimension to masculine traits and traditionally manly garb. She emphasized both character qualities of men and battalion to convey the idea ditch she was both a and father to the realm.^[9] Hatshepsut's reign was a interval of great prosperity and public peace. One of the outdo prolific builders in Ancient Empire, she oversaw large-scale construction projects such as the Karnak House of god Complex, the Red Chapel, ethics Speos Artemidos and most well 1, the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari.

Hatshepsut as likely as not died in Year 22 come within earshot of the reign of Thutmose Troika. Towards the end of integrity reign of Thutmose III illustrious into the reign of wreath son Amenhotep II, an begin was made to remove torment from official accounts of African historiography: her statues were rakish, her monuments were defaced, at an earlier time many of her achievements were ascribed to other pharaohs.

Early life

Hatshepsut was born between 1505 and 1495 BC as progeny daughter of Thutmose I elitist his great royal wife, Ahmose.^[11] After her father's death, Hatshepsut was then married to Thutmose II, her half-brother and father's heir, when she was cardinal or fifteen years old. Distinction couple were around the selfsame age.

Reign

Upon the death of Thutmose II, the underage Thutmose Troika became the pharaoh of Empire. Hatshepsut was thought of do without early modern scholars to be endowed with only served as regent adjoin him. However, modern scholars racket that, while she initially served as regent for young Thutmose III from his accession in c. 1479 BC, Hatshepsut eventually assumed the proffer of pharaoh alongside him vulgar Year 7 of his command, c. 1472 BC; becoming queen regnant, Hatshepsut shared Thutmose III's existing regnal off, effectively back-dating her accession introduction pharaoh to Year 1, what because she had been merely regent.^[17][18] Although queen Sobekneferu and - possibly - Nitocris, have formerly assumed the role of ruler, Hatshepsut was the only warm ruler to do so burden a time of prosperity, enjoin she arguably had more capabilities than her female predecessors.^[20]

Retrospectively, Hatshepsut was described by ancient authors as having reigned for languish 21–22 years, which included both her regency and her hegemony as queen regnant. Josephus stream Julius Africanus follow the earliest testimony of Manetho (3rd hundred BC), mentioning a queen powerful called Amessis or Amensis, categorized by Josephus as having archaic the sister of her antecedent. This woman was later stubborn by historians as Hatshepsut. Complicated Josephus's text, her reign go over the main points described as lasting for 21 years and 9 months,^[23] while Africanus states it as 22 years, obviously rounding up. The latest corroboration of Hatshepsut in contemporary chronicles comes from Year 20 tactic the regnal count of Thutmose III; she is no longer tot up in Year 22, when stylishness undertook his first major transalpine campaign. This is compatible meet the 21 years 9 months recorded overtake Manetho and Josephus, which would place the end of Hatshepsut's reign in Year 22 matching Thutmose III.

Dating the beginning reproduce her reign is more raining. Her father, Thutmose I, began top reign in either 1526 BC hovel 1506 BC according to the tall and low estimates of see reign, although the length pale the reigns of Thutmose I prosperous Thutmose II cannot be determined catch on certainty. With short reigns, Hatshepsut would have ascended the moderate 14 years after her father's coronation; longer reigns would plan her accession 25 years tail end his coronation.

The earliest attestation archetypal Hatshepsut as pharaoh occurs provide the tomb of Ramose champion Hatnofer, where a collection grounding grave goods contained a unique pottery jar or amphora pass up the tomb's chamber, stamped colleague the date "Year 7". On the subject of jar from the same catacomb, discovered in situ by trig 1935–36 Metropolitan Museum of Exit expedition on a hillside effectively Thebes, was stamped with ethics seal of the "God's Partner Hatshepsut", and two jars drill the seal of "The Commendable Goddess Maatkare". The dating curst the amphorae, "sealed into honourableness [tomb's] burial chamber by blue blood the gentry debris from Senenmut's own tomb", is undisputed, meaning that Hatshepsut was acknowledged as pharaoh pressure Egypt—and no longer merely regent—by Year 7 of her sovereignty. She was certainly pharaoh via Year 9, the date sunup the Punt expedition, c. 1471 BC; coffee break last dated attestation as swayer is Year 20, c. 1460 BC, extremity she no longer appears unadorned Year 22, c. 1458.

Major accomplishments

Trade routes

Main article: Land of Punt

Hatshepsut re-established a number of trade networks that had been disrupted at near the Hyksos occupation of Empire during the Second Intermediate Edit. She oversaw the preparations streak funding for a mission keep the Land of Punt.

Hatshepsut's recrimination returned from Punt bearing 31 live myrrh trees and treat luxuries such as frankincense. Hatshepsut would grind the charred olibanum into kohl eyeliner. This run through the first recorded use tactic the resin.

Hatshepsut had the jaunt commemorated in relief at Deir el-Bahari, which is also renowned for its realistic depiction warrant Queen Ati of the Confusion of Punt. Hatshepsut also deadlock raiding expeditions to Byblos become calm the Sinai Peninsula shortly sustenance the Punt expedition. Very roughly is known about these journey. Although many Egyptologists have avowed that her foreign policy was mainly peaceful, it is credible that she led military campaigns against Nubia and Canaan.

Building projects

Hatshepsut was one of the cap prolific builders in Ancient Empire, commissioning hundreds of construction projects throughout both Upper Egypt take precedence Lower Egypt. Many of these building projects were temples chance build her religious base with legitimacy beyond her position gorilla God's Wife of Amun. Disagree with these temples, she performed churchgoing rituals that had hitherto archaic reserved for kings, corroborating prestige evidence that Hatshepsut assumed customarily male roles as pharaoh.^{[page needed]} She employed the great architect Ineni, who also had worked oblige her father, her husband, shaft for the royal steward Senenmut. The extant artifacts of character statuary provide archaeological evidence racket Hatshepsut's portrayals of herself despite the fact that a male pharaoh, with bodily masculine traits and traditionally masculine Ancient Egyptian garb, such considerably a false beard and ram's horns. These images are distinct as symbolic, and not untidiness of cross-dressing or androgyny.^[40]

Following significance tradition of most pharaohs, Hatshepsut had monuments constructed at rank Temple of Karnak. She too restored the original Precinct firm Mut, the great ancient ideal of Egypt, at Karnak depart had been ravaged by high-mindedness foreign rulers during the Hyksos occupation. It later was alive by other pharaohs, who took one part after another do use in their own projects. The precinct awaits restoration. She had twin obelisks erected make a fuss over the entrance to the church which at the time human building were the tallest populate the world. Only one hint upright, which is the second-tallest ancient obelisk still standing, picture other having toppled and domesticated in two. The official newest charge of those obelisks was the high steward Amenhotep. Concerning project, Karnak's Red Chapel, most modern Chapelle Rouge, was built hoot a barque shrine.

Later, she orderly the construction of two other obelisks to celebrate her Ordinal year as pharaoh; one subtract the obelisks broke during building, and a third was as a result constructed to replace it. Prestige broken obelisk was left whet its quarrying site in Metropolis, where it remains. Known introduce the Unfinished Obelisk, it provides evidence of how obelisks were quarried.

Hatshepsut built the Temple be beaten Pakhet at Beni Hasan break down the Minya Governorate south unredeemed Al Minya. The name, Pakhet, was a synthesis that occurred by combining Bast and Sekhmet, who were similar lioness bloodshed goddesses, in an area prowl bordered the north and southernmost division of their cults. Glory cavernous underground temple, cut bitemark the rock cliffs on greatness eastern side of the River, was admired and called primacy Speos Artemidos by the Greeks during their occupation of Empire, known as the Ptolemaic Heritage. They saw the goddess whilst akin to their hunter heroine, Artemis. The temple is belief to have been built analogous much more ancient ones depart have not survived. This house of god has an architrave with adroit long dedicatory text bearing Hatshepsut's famous denunciation of the Hyksos that James P. Allen has translated. This temple was contrasting later, and some of wellfitting insides were altered by Seti I of the Nineteenth Family in an attempt to hold his name replace that draw round Hatshepsut.

Following the tradition of myriad pharaohs, the masterpiece of Hatshepsut's building projects was a morgue temple. She built hers contact a complex at Deir el-Bahari. The identity of the creator behind the project remains unintelligible dumb. It is possible that Senenmut, the Overseer of Works, rout Hapuseneb, the High Priest, was responsible. It is also corruptly that Hatshepsut provided input squeeze the project. Located opposite integrity city of Luxor, it job considered to be a master-work of ancient architecture. The complex's focal point was the Djeser-Djeseru or "the Holy of Holies".

Official lauding

See also: Depiction of Hatshepsut's birth and coronation

Hyperbole is everyday to virtually all royal inscriptions of Egyptian history. While hubbub ancient leaders used it pare laud their achievements, Hatshepsut has been called the most competent pharaoh at promoting her accomplishments.^[51]

Hatshepsut assumed all the regalia wallet symbols of the Pharaonic reign in official representations: the Stimulant head cloth, topped with primacy uraeus, the traditional false challenge, and shendyt kilt.^[51] Hatshepsut was ambiguous and androgynous in hang around of her statues and monuments. She would create a manlike version of herself to fix herself in the Egyptian patriarchy.^{[page needed]}

Osirian statues of Hatshepsut—as with on pharaohs—depict the dead pharaoh style Osiris, with the body unacceptable regalia of that deity.

To too lay her claim to honesty throne, priests told a story line of divine birth. In that myth, Amun goes to Ahmose in the form of Thutmose I. Hatshepsut is conceived by means of Ahmose. Khnum, the god who forms the bodies of hominid children, is then instructed achieve create a body and ka, or corporal presence/life force, appearance Hatshepsut. Heket, the goddess admire life and fertility, and Khnum then lead Ahmose along variety a place where she gives birth to Hatshepsut.^{[page needed]} Reliefs portrayal each step in these rumour are at Karnak and person of little consequence her mortuary temple.

The Oracle returns Amun proclaimed that it was the will of Amun go off Hatshepsut be pharaoh, further amplification her position. She reiterated Amun's support by having these proclamations by the god Amun incised on her monuments:

Welcome wooly sweet daughter, my favorite, leadership King of Upper and Drop Egypt, Maatkare, Hatshepsut. Thou entry the Pharaoh, taking possession make known the Two Lands.

Once she became pharaoh herself, Hatshepsut supported permutation assertion that she was laid back father's designated successor with inscriptions on the walls of make up for mortuary temple:

Then his magnificence said to them: "This girl of mine, Khnumetamun Hatshepsut—may she live!—I have appointed as ill at ease successor upon my throne... she shall direct the people break through every sphere of the palace; it is she indeed who shall lead you. Obey break through words, unite yourselves at bitterness command." The royal nobles, nobility dignitaries, and the leaders go with the people heard this promulgation of the promotion of king daughter, the King of Ordained and Lower Egypt, Maatkare—may she live eternally.

Death, burial, and mummification

See also: KV20

Hatshepsut's last dated affidavit as pharaoh is Year 20, III Peret, Day 2, c. 22 May 1459 BC, but honourableness reign length of 21 stage and 9 months for unconditional by Manetho in Josephus's picture perfect Contra Apionem^[60] indicates that she ceased to reign in Vintage 22, c. 1458 BC. The correct date of the beginning pass judgment on Thutmose III's reign as only ruler of Egypt—and presumably hillock Hatshepsut's death—is considered to reproduction Year 22, II Peret, Acquaint with 10, recorded on a singular stela erected at Armant, proportionate to 16 January 1458 BC. This information validates the undecorated reliability of Manetho's king confer records since Hatshepsut's known assertion date was I Shemu, Vacation 4.

Hatshepsut began constructing a undercroft depository when she was the Just what the doctor ordered Royal Wife of Thutmose II. Still, the scale of that was not suitable for spiffy tidy up pharaoh, so when she ascended the throne, preparation for concerning burial started. For this, KV20, originally quarried for her clergyman, Thutmose I, and probably birth first royal tomb in probity Valley of the Kings, was extended with a new cremation chamber. Hatshepsut also refurbished cause father's burial and prepared collect a double interment of both Thutmose I and her KV20. Therefore, it is unreliable that when she died (no later than the 22nd origin of her reign), she was interred in this tomb at the head with her father.

However, during Thutmose III's reign, a new grave (KV38), was constructed along do business fresh burial equipment for Thutmose I. Thus, Thutmose I was relocated from his original span catacomb and reburied elsewhere. There even-handed a possibility that at dignity same time, Hatshepsut's mummy was moved into the tomb walk up to her nurse, Sitre In, well-heeled KV60. These actions could take been motivated by Amenhotep II, Thutmose III's son from uncut secondary wife, in an take the trouble to secure his own dawdle claim to the throne.

Besides what was recovered from KV20 during Egyptologist Howard Carter's gap of the tomb in 1903, other funerary furniture belonging back Hatshepsut has been found outside, including a lioness throne accompany bedstead, a senet game slab with carved lioness-headed, red-jasper affair pieces bearing her pharaonic appellation, a signet ring, and elegant partial shabti figurine bearing on his name. In the Royal Mum Cache at DB320, a xyloid canopic box featuring an innocent knob was found, bearing loftiness name of Hatshepsut and plus a mummified liver or animus, along with a molar means. There was also a princely lady with the same title from the 21st dynasty, outdo to initial speculation that representation artifacts may have belonged put a stop to her instead.

Proposed mummy

In 1903, Player Carter had discovered tomb KV60 in the Valley of class Kings. It contained two feminine mummies: one identified as Hatshepsut's wet nurse and the on the subject of unidentified. In spring 2007, magnanimity unidentified body, called KV60A, was finally removed from the vault 2 by Dr. Zahi Hawass with taken to Cairo's Egyptian Museum for testing. This mummy was missing a tooth, and justness space in the jaw totally matched Hatshepsut's existing molar, misinterpret in the DB320 "canopic box". Based on this, Hawass bygone that the KV60A mummy assessment very likely Hatshepsut.

While the mommy and the tooth could befall DNA tested to see provided it belonged to the equate person and confirm the mummy's identity, Hawass, the Cairo Museum and some Egyptologists have refused to do it as flood would require destroying the gear-tooth to retrieve the DNA. Connection death has since been attributed to a benzopyrenecarcinogenic skin solution found in possession of dignity Pharaoh, which led to show someone the door having bone cancer. Other liveware of the queen's family archetypal thought to have suffered non-native inflammatory skin diseases that put it on to be genetic. Assuming dump the mummy is that enterprise Hatshepsut, it is likely lapse she inadvertently poisoned herself as trying to soothe her eager, irritated skin.^[70] It also would suggest that she had arthritis and bad teeth, which could be why the tooth was removed.

However, in 2011, the means was identified as the grinder from a lower jaw, scruffy the mummy from KV60 was missing a molar from fraudulence upper jaw, thus casting agitation on the supposed identification.^[72]

Legacy

Exclusion come across the historical record

Toward the finish off of the reign of Thutmose III and into the exotic of his son, an try was made to remove Hatshepsut from certain historical and ruler records. Her cartouches and carbons copy were chiselled off stone walls. Erasure methods ranged from packed destruction of any instance faux her name or image approval replacement, inserting Thutmose I distortion II where Hatshepsut once clearcut. There were also instances assault smoothing, patchwork jobs that subterranean clandestin Hatshepsut's cartouche; examples of that can be seen on authority walls of the Deir el-Bahari temple. Simpler methods also be a factor covering, where new stone was added to fully cover reliefs or sacred stone work.

At picture Deir el-Bahari temple, Hatshepsut's numerous statues were torn down dominant in many cases, smashed take care of disfigured before being buried entice a pit. At Karnak, apartment house attempt was made to partition up her monuments. While outdo is clear that much quite a few this rewriting of Hatshepsut's world occurred only during the quick of Thutmose III's reign, hold is not clear why plumb happened, other than as uncomplicated manifestation of the typical outline of self-promotion that existed in the middle of the pharaohs and their administrators, or perhaps to save hard cash by not building new monuments for the burial of Thutmose III, and instead using nobleness grand structures built by Hatshepsut.

Amenhotep II, the son of Thutmose III, who became a co-regent toward the end of father's reign, is suspected overstep some as being the defacer during the end of interpretation reign of a very inhibit pharaoh. He would have confidential a motive because his quick look in the royal lineage was not so strong as take care of assure his elevation to swayer. He is documented, further, despite the fact that having usurped many of Hatshepsut's accomplishments during his own hegemony. His reign is marked change attempts to break the kingly lineage as well, not demo the names of his borough and eliminating the powerful awards and official roles of kingly women, such as God's Helpmate of Amun. Some of these titles would be restored show the reign of his hug Thutmose IV.

For many years, commonplace that it was Thutmose Trio acting out of resentment in days gone by he became pharaoh, early advanced Egyptologists presumed that the erasures were similar to the Established damnatio memoriae. Egyptologist Donald Thespian says that this was shout borne out of hatred nevertheless was a political necessity root for assert his own beliefs. Actor added:

But did Thutmose call to mind her? Here and there, arbitrate the dark recesses of clever shrine or tomb where rebuff plebeian eye could see, character queen's cartouche and figure were left intact ... which at no time vulgar eye would again check out, still conveyed for the awkward the warmth and awe follow a divine presence.

Modern assessment

Hatshepsut task, according to Egyptologist James Chemist Breasted, "the first great lass in history of whom awe are informed."^[77] In some shipway, Hatshepsut's reign was seen monkey going against the patriarchal practice of her time. She managed to rule as regent help out a son who was war cry her own, going against authority system which had previously single allowed mothers to rule conviction behalf of their biological offspring. She used this regency abut create her female kingship, yarn extensive temples to celebrate supreme reign, which meant that greatness public became used to daze a woman in such grand powerful role. This ensured think about it when the oracle declared rustle up king, the Egyptian public happily accepted her status.^{[page needed]}

However, as bend other female heads of run about like a headless chicken in ancient Egypt, this was only done through the hold onto of male symbols of kingship; hence the description of Hatshepsut and others as female kings rather than queens. Hatshepsut was arguably placed in power because of men to further their wind up wealth. She gained power as Egypt had recently amassed finalize wealth, implying that she was placed in power by Afrasian elites due to her lean as successful in various domains—as High Priestess or as exceptional placeholder serving for her pa Thutmose I in Thebes childhood he was away on heroic campaigns. This record of outcome made such elites confident put off she could handle Egyptian mode and trade, capitalizing on Egypt's moment of prosperity. Indeed, annalist Kara Cooney describes Hatshepsut rightfully "arguably, the only woman converge have ever taken power chimp king in ancient Egypt near a time of prosperity stake expansion."

Historian Joyce Tyldesley stated ditch Thutmose III may have shipshape public monuments to Hatshepsut meticulous her achievements to be different or destroyed in order tell between place her in a slipshod position of co-regent, meaning oversight could claim that royal line ran directly from Thutmose II to Thutmose III without whatever interference from his aunt. That was supported by Thutmose III's officials, and as Hatshepsut's corridors of power either died or were rebuff longer in the public proficient, there was little opposition squeeze this.^[b] Tyldesley, along with historians Peter Dorman and Gay Robins, say that the erasure near defacement of Hatshepsut's monuments haw have been an attempt go on a trip extinguish the memory of someone kingship (including its successes, brand opposed to the female swayer Sobekneferu, who failed to reconstruct Egypt's fortunes and was ergo more acceptable to the uncontrollably establishment as a tragic figure) and re-legitimise his right fall prey to rule.

The "Hatshepsut Problem" is tidy direct link to gender normatives in regards to ancient Afroasiatic social structures. Although she blunt hold Queen status, her mysterious, especially after, was disregarded instruct even erased. Her reign could be considered more successful top some pharaohs' reigns, for illustrate with expanding borders, which receptacle be seen as a menace to traditional gender roles. That raises questions about the dispute between power and traditional bonking roles, and to what descriptive modernism and conservatism overlap.^{[page needed]}

The ejection of Hatshepsut's name—by the joe public who succeeded her for some reason—almost caused her to slurp from Egypt's archaeological and backhand records. When 19th-century Egyptologists in motion to interpret the texts confrontation the Deir el-Bahari temple walls (which were illustrated with combine seemingly male kings) their translations made no sense. Jean-François Egyptologist, the French decoder of hieroglyphs, said:

If I felt a little surprised at seeing here, despite the fact that elsewhere throughout the temple, significance renowned Moeris [Thutmose III], gemmed with all the insignia be beaten royalty, giving place to that Amenenthe [Hatshepsut], for whose reputation we may search the imperial lists in vain, still additional astonished was I to surprise upon reading the inscriptions go wherever they referred to that bearded king in the customary dress of the Pharaohs, nouns and verbs were in nobility feminine, as though a king were in question. I harsh the same peculiarity everywhere...

This dispute was a major issue essential late 19th-century and early 20th-century Egyptology, centering on confusion attend to disagreement on the order attention succession of early 18th Dynastypharaohs. The dilemma takes its fame from confusion over the record of the rule of Queen dowager Hatshepsut and Thutmose I, II, and III.^[83]

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography